Chinese music encompasses several different genres, the more prominent ones being: folk music; traditional music; and art music. These various forms of music represent not only the traditions of a single ethnic group, but of various ethnic populations that make up China. At the same time, they also include not only music that has been handed down through the generations, but also contemporary, living music.
Art music is a very big area to define, including not only pieces of music composed by past and present composers in China, but also compositions by composers who may be ethnic Chinese but do not reside in China, and who may or may not write for traditional Chinese instruments and/or based upon Chinese themes.
contemporary Chinese art music
Traditional music in China includes music that dates back more than 5000 years in China's history. In modern classification, scholars tend to categorise music that predates the Qing dynasty as traditional Chinese music. Traditional Chinese music can include court music [宫廷音乐], scholarly music [文人音乐], religious music [宗教音乐], and folk music [民间音乐].
Court music includes ritual music [雅乐] and music for entertainment [燕乐]. Ritual music is meant for religious activities in the courts and to signify the ultimate power and position of the emperor and is hence sombre and never light and lively. Court music for entertainment on the other hand usually derives from folk music or music brought in from other areas by foreign musicians. It is usually modified somewhat to suit the courts but usually retains the unique characteristics of the music it was derived from.
Scholarly music includes guqin music or poetry set to music. The characteristics of scholarly music, especially that of guqin music has been exemplified in the writings and philosophies of several important thinkers in Chinese history and aesthetic values of ancient Chinese music has been based on these ideas.
traditional scholarly music
Religious music in China is mostly comprised of music for Buddhism and Taoism. These religious music however could vary quite widely in the different areas of China, as each derives influences from different cultural, historical, and geographical factors.
Folk music refers to music that is being performed and enjoyed by the common people and they include folk songs [民歌], music of folk dances [民间舞蹈音乐], folk instrumental music [民间器乐], operas [戏曲], and music for narrative-singing [说唱].
The folk music of China has a long history and at the same time, it is still very alive and constantly evolving even at the present moment. In the feudalistic society of the past, the literati thought of folk music as a base form of music and bad for the cultural development of the people. Yet, folk music continues to development and remain a very important part of people's lives.
The folk music of China has became such a big part of the Chinese musical culture and presently, could be one of the most important forms of traditional music that influences the development of contemporary art music in China. The forms and types of folk music are so widely varied and the contents so rich that the influence to modern development is almost infinite.
Even though the view towards folk music during the feudalistic past was far from complimentary, there are various eras in which the department in charge of music within the courts took an effort at collecting and classifying the folk music of their common people. These provide us with an idea of the types of folk music that were present during those periods of time and are a very important source of information. At the same time, the educated literati, besides collecting and classifying folk music, might do certain modifications or change the folk music in certain ways, slowly also infusing the folk music of the common people with characteristics of the music of the courts of scholarly music. Hence besides the common folks' practice of folk music and gradual change over time, these forms of interactions and influences by the literati and court officials are also part of the slow process in which folk music evolve through the ages.
The folk music of China has been created and evolved through people's ideas and lives over the ages and in them, we can find very rich sources of artistic creativity, as well as the emotions, dreams, ideas, and passions of the people throughout the long history of China.
Types of folk music
The folk music of China could be divided into 5 categories: folk songs, music of folk dances, music for narrative-singing, operatic music, and folk instrumental music.
Folk songs could be classified in various ways. They could be grouped according to the contents of the lyrics; or they could be grouped based on their utilitarian purposes; they could also be classified by the period of time of their origin; or they could be divided into the various regions from which they come from.
Chinese folk song
Music of folk dances do not have as long a period of scholarly research as the folk songs of China and hence their understanding and classification are still in the stages of infancy. The music of the folk dances is often closely related to the folk songs of the area and hence one can usually see similar characteristics within the music.
folk dance
In narrative-singing, the classification is usually made up of pinghua [评话], guqu [鼓曲], kuaiban [快板], and xiangsheng [相声]. Amongst them, only guqu involves music and this group of genre could be further classified according to the instruments that are used, the area of origin, or the musical characteristics such as guci [鼓词], tanci [弹词], daoqing [道情], paiziqu [牌子曲], and qinshu [琴书]. Another way of classification is based on the musical structure and this includes danquti [单曲体], qupailiantaoti [曲牌联套体], banqiangti [板腔体], and zhuchati [主插体].
narrative singing
Operatic music has 2 different modes of classification - the first is based on the singing style and the second based on the musical structure. Based on the singing styles there are 6 different categories: kunqiang [昆腔], gaoqiang [高腔], bangziqiang [梆子腔], pihuangqiang [皮簧腔], folk singing and dance style [民间歌舞类型], and narrative-singing style [民间说唱类型]. Based upon the musical structure, there is qupaiti [曲牌体] and banqiangti [板腔体].
opera
Folk instrumental music consists of solo instrumental music and ensemble music. Solo instrumental music can be divided into wind instruments, bowed string instruments, and plucked string instruments. Ensemble music can be categorised into string ensemble [弦索乐], silk and bamboo ensemble [丝竹乐], wind and percussion ensemble [吹打乐], and percussion ensemble [清锣鼓].
traditional folk instrumental ensemble
Characteristics of folk music
Oral traditions, improvisation and group composition:
Folk music cannot trace their origin to a single composer, they are created through the long process of singing and passing on, and they are the result of the ideas of generations of people throughout history.
Folk music is historically passed down through oral traditions and through this process, gets slowly changed. There is plenty of improvisation within folk music as well and because of the absence of strict adherence to notations, there is a continuous fluid change in every piece of folk music.
Regional:
Folk music has very unique regional characteristics. Various regions in China have developed very different cultures and ways of life through the years due to various geographical, historical, sociopolitical factors, and all these influenced the development of the music in that region. Different dialects result in regional differences in the ways a melody might be ornamented or sung. Differences in ways of life also creates different emotional loading of the music, as well as differences in the lyrics of folk songs. Different geographical and physical attributes also lead to differences in the ways a melody or rhythmic features develop, as well as differences in musical instrumentation.
Utilitarian:
Folk music serves various purposes and these could be: educational; to aid in labour; for entertainment; for festivities and rituals; etc.
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22.8.15
Chinese Traditional Folk Instrumental Music
Definition:
Chinese traditional folk instrumental music can be used to describe any form of folk music played on traditional Chinese instruments. There are two types, solo instrumental music and ensemble music. Solo instrumental music are categorised according to the instruments used, as well as the playing style, such as wind, bowed, plucked, etc. Ensemble music can be divided into various different types: Percussion ensemble or qing luo gu [清锣鼓] for those using only percussion instruments; Wind and Percussion ensemble or chui da yue [吹打乐] for ensembles made up of both wind and percussion instruments; String ensembles or xian suo yue [弦索乐] for ensembles utilising only string instruments; Silk and Bamboo ensembles or si zhu yue [丝竹乐] for ensembles made up of string and bamboo instruments. Each of these types of ensembles can come in many different manifestations and can have very different musical characteristics.
Function of Chinese Traditional Folk Instrumental Music in the Society:
Traditional folk instrumental music is frequently used in folk events and rituals, such as weddings, funerals, religious activities and so on. Various types of folk instrumental ensembles can be found in every part of China and even though they are known by different names, all of them provide the function of these various folk activities as well as for the entertainment of the people. Traditional folk instrumental music is indispensible in folk activities. Due to the different functions of various ensembles, different musical styles and characteristics have slowly evolved and different types of music and different ensembles can be found in different types of activities.
The Origins and Development of Folk Instrumental Ensembles:
The growth of instrumental music is closely related to the economic and cultural growth of an area. Because of a lack of written records in ancient history, much of the origins of musical instruments can only be guessed. There are plenty of Chinese legends talking about musical instruments and instrumental music. They may have some basis in reality, but the exact origins and history of instrumental music in China still has much to be uncovered. Archeological findings have uncovered the existence of percussion instruments very far back in history. It is highly likely that the simpler percussion instruments such as bells, chimes [钟，磬，鼓，etc] were invented first while other more complex instruments with more complex construction or playing techniques were invented much later. Most of these early instruments were used in religious rituals, and in dances. Based on both archeological and written records, instruments that were present in China since pre-Han period include several complex instruments many which can still be found in Chinese music today. These include: drums [鼓], rattle drums [鼗], chime-stones [磬], chimes [钟], bells [铃], whistles [哨], xun [埙], vertical flute [箫], guan [管], chi [篪], sheng [笙], qin [琴], se [瑟], lute [筑] and so on. During the Zhou dynasty, the ancient Chinese have already started categorising their musical instruments. They divided musical instruments according to the type of materials they were made from and 8 categories emerged, namely: metal [金], stone [石], clay [土], skin [革], silk [丝], wood [木], gourd [匏], and bamboo [竹]. This form of categorisation has been in used in China from the Zhou dynasty, all the way until the beginning of the Qing dynasty. During Qin-Han dynasty, the zheng [筝], pipa [琵琶], di [笛], fang xiang [方响], etc have been invented. With the strengthening of the Han dynasty, there was increase in communication and interactions with other places outside China. Influences from all these foreign places brought about new types of music and cultural activities. Instruments from foreign lands also came into China. By the Sui-Tang era, there were plenty of diplomatic exchanges with foreign countries and cultural exchanges lead to a further development and change in the music of China. Based on written records, there were as many as 300 different types of instruments during the Tang dynasty. At this time, the pipa has become the main instrument used in the entertainment music of the courts [燕乐] and several virtuosic performers on the pipa emerged during that time. It was also during this period of time that bowed string instruments first made their appearance in China. Instruments such as the zha zheng [轧筝] and xi qin [奚琴] could already be seen outside the courts played by the common folk. Bows made of horse-hair were not yet present and these bowed instruments produced their sounds by bowing on a bamboo strip. From the Song dynasty onwards, musical instruments continued to advance in their designs and sound quality, and the four main groups of Chinese instruments start to emerge (even as the 8 categories of musical instruments were still in use): wind [吹]; bowed strings [拉]; plucked strings [弹]; percussion [打]. The bowed string instruments which have slowly became popular in the folk music by this time have been enriched by another type of bowed string instrument which came into China from the north-western regions. This was the "horse-tail" hu qin [马尾胡琴] which uses a bow made of the hair from the tail of a horse. The popularisation of dance music, the growth of narrative-singing and various forms of operas all led to a rapid development of various types of bowed string instruments and the family of hu qin such as the erhu [二胡], banhu [板胡], jinghu [京胡], zhuihu [坠胡], sihu [四胡], etc slowly emerged. Plucked string instruments also saw a gradual change from the Song dynasty onwards. The pipa popular during the Tang dynasty has undergone several changes from the Song dynasty onwards. The bent neck was replaced by the straight-necked pipa, and from being played with a pick, was gradually changed to being played with the fingers. Originally carried horizontally when playing, it changed to being carried vertically. The number of strings became fixed at four and the number of frets gradually increased. Several modifications on the pipa drew its influence from the ruan xian [阮咸] and by the Qing dynasty, pipa playing techniques have reached new heights and many important repertoire of the solo pipa have emerged. In addition to the pipa and the ruan xian, other plucked string instruments popular during this period of time were the sanxian [三弦] and the yueqin [月琴]. Very popular among narrative-singing genres, the sanxian could be traced back to the Yuan dynasty and its popularity continued to soar over the Ming and Qing dynasties. The yue qin was also popularised by narrative singing genres especially since the Ming and Qing dynasties. At the end of the Ming dynasty, another type of string instrument came into China. This was the yangqin [扬琴], a percussive string instrument, different from the bowed or plucked instruments that had been present. The yangqin was brought into China from Persia and the strings were struck with pieces of bamboo. The suona [唢呐] is another instrument that entered Chinese music during this period of time. Originating also from Persia, the suona came into China slightly earlier than the yangqin. Suonas could be found in Chinese music from as early as the Yuan dynasty, although it was during the Ming dynasty when it enjoyed much greater popularisation. Percussion instruments also saw new additions from the Yuan dynasty onwards. The yun luo [云锣] is an important set of percussion instruments which emerged during this time and became an important type of percussion instrument in Chinese music. Musical instruments and musical culture did not just move in a single direction from outside of China into China. Over this long period of history, many Chinese instruments and Chinese music moved out of China and influenced several musical cultures around the world.
Development of Folk Instrumental Ensemble Music: From the Western Zhou up to the Spring and Autumn and Warring States, there were already several musical instruments popularly played in folk music. During the Qin-Han period, the wind and percussion ensemble from the north-western regions came into China and soon came to be used in plenty of court music. At the same time, this form of music spread to the common folks and over a long period of time, slowly evolved into many different types of wind and percussion ensembles. Prior to the Han-Wei period, Instrumental music was used together with singing but by this time, there were beginning to be records of instrumental music that was being performed without any singing. These were known as dan qu [但曲] and were frequently performed by instruments such as the qin, zheng, sheng, and zhu. During the Sui-Tang era, pipa performance techniques rose and the pipa not only became a very important instrument used in court music, but also saw the development of many solo works. Silk and bamboo ensembles started forming by the Song dynasty and there were many different types of ensembles found in the folk music. This development continued on through to the Qing dynasty and by then there was a myraid of different types of folk instrumental music all around China. Since the Song dynasty, the development folk instrumental ensembles were also heavily influenced by regional operatic styles and performance and musical styles of these folk instrumental ensembles were closely related to singing styles of the various operas. Many tunes found in folk instrumental ensembles were also derived from the tunes found in operatic music. Musical Characteristics of Folk Instrumental Music:
Title of a work There are a few ways of naming a work and unlike modern art music, in which the title usually depicts what the composer has in mind for that piece of music, traditional folk instrumental music may not be named in this way. Pieces of music which have their melodies derived from a folk song or a certain operatic tune for example, may be titled based on the melody it was derived from, such as Hua Gu Qu [花鼓曲], Mo Li Hua [茉莉花] and so on. Some other pieces may be named by the notes which start off the piece of music, such as Chi Gong Chi [尺工尺] or Liu Wu Liu [六五六]. Others may be named based on their musical structure such as Ba Ban [八板] or Ju Ju Shuang [句句双]. Finally, there are also some pieces which are being titled according to the contents of the music, such as Ba Wang Xie Jia [霸王卸甲], Yang Chun [阳春] and so on.
Musical structure The conventional way of dividing folk instrumental music is into 2 categories, single piece [单曲] and suite [套曲]. Single pieces are usually derived from one single stock melody [曲牌] while suites are made up of several stock melodies or a linking together of several pieces of music. Several different formal structures can be found: bian zou ti [变奏体], xun huan ti [循环体], lian zhui ti [联缀体], and zong he ti [综合体]. The most commonly seen are bian zou ti and lian zhui ti.
Variation techniques of folk instrumental music Variation is a type of technique very frequently found in Chinese traditional music. The way the music is being varied takes the form of several very unique techniques characteristic of Chinese traditional music. There are a few different ways of varying a melody in Chinese traditional music. Without changing the basic melody, ornaments may be added. The beginning or the ending of the melody could also be modified thus producing something new while the basic tune is left unchanged. Performance techniques could also be varied while the melody remains unchanged. The pitch of the melody could be changed or the rhythm could be modified. Among all these, changing performance technique while the melody remains unchanged is frequently used in the wind ensembles of the north of China. Variation of the meter [板式变奏], this is characteristic of the variation techniques used in the southern silk and bamboo ensembles. Variation of the modality of the music. In solo instrumental pieces, the modality can be changed via various fingering techniques. Jie zi bian zou [借字变奏] is a very unique kind of variation technique in Chinese traditional music. In this form of variation, one of the main notes in the pentatonic scale would be replaced with a bian sheng [变声], effectively changing the modality of the piece of music, but in a very different way from the conventional modulation techniques we see in Western art music. Traditional Folk Instrumental Ensemble Music:
Silk and Bamboo Ensemble As can be seen from the name, this type of ensemble is made up of silk and bamboo instruments. Since the Han dynasty, there has already been written records of this form of ensemble used as an accompaniment to singing. During the Northern and Southern Wei-Jin dynasties, besides being used as accompaniment to singing, silk and bamboo ensembles sometimes play a short section before the entry of the vocal part. In the Sui-Tang era, qing diao [清调] and fa qu [法曲] are two types of silk and bamboo ensemble set up. Song dynasty xi yue [细乐], Yuan dynasty da qu [大曲], xiao qu [小曲], are also different incarnations of silk and bamboo ensembles. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, the development of operas and narrative singing lead to a large increase in silk and bamboo ensembles, with the accompaniment for operas and narrative singing frequently using various combinations of silk and bamboo instruments. Eventually, they developed to become not only accompaniment for the operas or narrative singing, but into a stand-alone performance entity. Jiangnan Silk and Bamboo Ensemble [江南丝竹] is a form of silk and bamboo ensemble highly popular in the Jiangnan [江南] area of China. Originating in Jiangsu [江苏], Zhejiang [浙江], and Anhui [安徽] regions, it moved to the city area of Shanghai and became highly developed there. Cantonese Music is a form of silk and bamboo ensemble music popular in the Southern parts of Guangdong [广东] and Zhu Jiang [珠江] areas. Cantonese music emerged towards the end of the Qing dynasty from accompaniment of Cantonese operas. These ensembles started off performing in the teahouses, for weddings and funerals and so on. Later on in the early 20th century, they also started performing in cinemas as a musical accompaniment for the soundless movies of that era. By the 1930s, they also became more commercialised and produced many recordings and even performed in nightclubs and other recreational facilities. Teochew Music includes various genres and is popular in the Chao [潮], Shan [汕] areas of Guangdong, the southern parts of Fujian [福建], as well as in several Southeast Asian countries. Teochew tone-poems [潮州弦诗] traces their origins to ancient tunes set to poems. Later they became popular within the common folk and became in integral part of the folk music. Teochew xi yue [细乐] is an ensemble made up of the sanxian, pipa, and guzheng and several pieces of music have been passed down with written notation. Fujian Nanyin [福建南音] is a type of ensemble music popular in the Min Nan [闽南] areas of China. There are pure instrumental music, as well as plenty of music which includes singing.
Wind and Percussion Ensemble Wind and Percussion ensembles came into China as early as the Western Han period from the northwestern regions. At the beginning, they were being used for military purposes and for court entertainment. Later on, wind and percussion ensembles moved out of the courts and manifest itself in several forms of folk wind and percussion ensembles around China. Liao Ning Gu Yue [辽宁鼓乐] is popular around Liaoning and the music is heavily influenced by operas, folk songs and other instrumental ensembles of that area. It is frequently used for weddings, funerals and other festivities. Divided into 2 types, suona music and sheng music, the former uses the suona as the lead instrument while the latter uses the guan and sheng as the main melodic instruments. Shandong Gu Chui [山东鼓吹] refers to the various wind and percussion ensembles in the Shandong area of China. In the eastern parts, the guanzi [管子] plays the role of the lead melodic instrument while in the central parts of Shandong, the dizi [笛子] is the main instrument. Finally in the southwestern parts, suona is often the main instrument in the ensemble. Jin Bei Gu Yue [晋北鼓乐] is popular in the Northern parts of Shanxi [山西]. Emerging during the Qing dynasty, this form of ensemble was absorbed into the temples and religious activities and is usually found performing for religious events and weddings and funerals. Similar to the other forms of wind and percussion ensembles, there are also two types, one using the guanzi as the main instrument and the other using the suona as the lead instrument. Ji Zhong Guan Yue [冀中管乐] is popular in Hebei [河北] and has a history of more than 200 years. It is usually used in religious rituals, as well as in festivities, funerals and weddings. Two different types of ensembles can be found, one using guanzi and haidi [海笛] and the other using suona. The types of music can be divided into religious and folk. Chao Zhou Luo Gu [潮州锣鼓] is a type of wind and percussion ensemble found in the Chaozhou [潮州] areas and they include several different performance formats. These include various forms of di tao luo gu [笛套锣鼓] and miao tang yin yue [庙堂音乐]. The development of Teochew percussion music is heavily influenced and also influenced the development of Teochew opera music. Shi Fan Luo Gu [十番锣鼓] is the name for wind and percussion ensembles popular in the Jiangnan areas. It is often used for weddings and funerals and religious activities or other important festivities. There are two types, one is a pure percussion ensemble and the other is known the sizhu luogu [丝竹锣鼓]. In addition to the main wind and percussion instruments, the si zhu luo gu also utilises some string instruments erhu, sanxian and so on.
Percussion Ensemble Qing luo gu [清锣鼓] is the term usually used for pure percussion ensembles. There are plenty of different techniques used in playing the percussion instruments in these types of ensembles and are frequently used to create a festive and lively atmosphere. One of the types of Shi Fan Luo Gu involves only percussion instruments and is commonly known as su luo gu [素锣鼓]. Chao Zhou Luo Gu also includes several types of pure percussion set up such as the da luo gu [大锣鼓], xiao luo gu [小锣鼓], su luo gu [苏锣鼓] and so on. Tu Jia Zu Da Liu Zi [土家族打溜子] is another form of percussion ensemble common among the tu jia zu. There are plenty of different percussion techniques found in this type of music making the pure percussion sound very varied and interesting. Importance of folk instrumental ensemble music and other forms of folk music: The development of Chinese traditional folk instrumental music is closely related to folk vocal music. Especially since the Song dynasty where operas and narrative singing started developing, folk instrumental ensembles also started developing on a large scale. At first, they were used to accompany operas or narrative singing, or certain folk songs and folk dances. Later on, folk instrumental ensembles started having independent pieces apart from accompaniment. Many of the music is derived from folk songs or operatic music and performance techniques also oftentimes imitate the vocal styles of the music of that region. Folk instrumental music are also an important source of inspiration for the pieces of music in Chinese orchestra and in contemporary compositions in the present. At the same time, the folk traditions are still very much alive and the music and characteristics of these various types of folk instrumental ensembles are still in a process of continual change.
Chinese traditional folk instrumental music can be used to describe any form of folk music played on traditional Chinese instruments. There are two types, solo instrumental music and ensemble music. Solo instrumental music are categorised according to the instruments used, as well as the playing style, such as wind, bowed, plucked, etc. Ensemble music can be divided into various different types: Percussion ensemble or qing luo gu [清锣鼓] for those using only percussion instruments; Wind and Percussion ensemble or chui da yue [吹打乐] for ensembles made up of both wind and percussion instruments; String ensembles or xian suo yue [弦索乐] for ensembles utilising only string instruments; Silk and Bamboo ensembles or si zhu yue [丝竹乐] for ensembles made up of string and bamboo instruments. Each of these types of ensembles can come in many different manifestations and can have very different musical characteristics.
Function of Chinese Traditional Folk Instrumental Music in the Society:
Traditional folk instrumental music is frequently used in folk events and rituals, such as weddings, funerals, religious activities and so on. Various types of folk instrumental ensembles can be found in every part of China and even though they are known by different names, all of them provide the function of these various folk activities as well as for the entertainment of the people. Traditional folk instrumental music is indispensible in folk activities. Due to the different functions of various ensembles, different musical styles and characteristics have slowly evolved and different types of music and different ensembles can be found in different types of activities.
The Origins and Development of Folk Instrumental Ensembles:
The growth of instrumental music is closely related to the economic and cultural growth of an area. Because of a lack of written records in ancient history, much of the origins of musical instruments can only be guessed. There are plenty of Chinese legends talking about musical instruments and instrumental music. They may have some basis in reality, but the exact origins and history of instrumental music in China still has much to be uncovered. Archeological findings have uncovered the existence of percussion instruments very far back in history. It is highly likely that the simpler percussion instruments such as bells, chimes [钟，磬，鼓，etc] were invented first while other more complex instruments with more complex construction or playing techniques were invented much later. Most of these early instruments were used in religious rituals, and in dances. Based on both archeological and written records, instruments that were present in China since pre-Han period include several complex instruments many which can still be found in Chinese music today. These include: drums [鼓], rattle drums [鼗], chime-stones [磬], chimes [钟], bells [铃], whistles [哨], xun [埙], vertical flute [箫], guan [管], chi [篪], sheng [笙], qin [琴], se [瑟], lute [筑] and so on. During the Zhou dynasty, the ancient Chinese have already started categorising their musical instruments. They divided musical instruments according to the type of materials they were made from and 8 categories emerged, namely: metal [金], stone [石], clay [土], skin [革], silk [丝], wood [木], gourd [匏], and bamboo [竹]. This form of categorisation has been in used in China from the Zhou dynasty, all the way until the beginning of the Qing dynasty. During Qin-Han dynasty, the zheng [筝], pipa [琵琶], di [笛], fang xiang [方响], etc have been invented. With the strengthening of the Han dynasty, there was increase in communication and interactions with other places outside China. Influences from all these foreign places brought about new types of music and cultural activities. Instruments from foreign lands also came into China. By the Sui-Tang era, there were plenty of diplomatic exchanges with foreign countries and cultural exchanges lead to a further development and change in the music of China. Based on written records, there were as many as 300 different types of instruments during the Tang dynasty. At this time, the pipa has become the main instrument used in the entertainment music of the courts [燕乐] and several virtuosic performers on the pipa emerged during that time. It was also during this period of time that bowed string instruments first made their appearance in China. Instruments such as the zha zheng [轧筝] and xi qin [奚琴] could already be seen outside the courts played by the common folk. Bows made of horse-hair were not yet present and these bowed instruments produced their sounds by bowing on a bamboo strip. From the Song dynasty onwards, musical instruments continued to advance in their designs and sound quality, and the four main groups of Chinese instruments start to emerge (even as the 8 categories of musical instruments were still in use): wind [吹]; bowed strings [拉]; plucked strings [弹]; percussion [打]. The bowed string instruments which have slowly became popular in the folk music by this time have been enriched by another type of bowed string instrument which came into China from the north-western regions. This was the "horse-tail" hu qin [马尾胡琴] which uses a bow made of the hair from the tail of a horse. The popularisation of dance music, the growth of narrative-singing and various forms of operas all led to a rapid development of various types of bowed string instruments and the family of hu qin such as the erhu [二胡], banhu [板胡], jinghu [京胡], zhuihu [坠胡], sihu [四胡], etc slowly emerged. Plucked string instruments also saw a gradual change from the Song dynasty onwards. The pipa popular during the Tang dynasty has undergone several changes from the Song dynasty onwards. The bent neck was replaced by the straight-necked pipa, and from being played with a pick, was gradually changed to being played with the fingers. Originally carried horizontally when playing, it changed to being carried vertically. The number of strings became fixed at four and the number of frets gradually increased. Several modifications on the pipa drew its influence from the ruan xian [阮咸] and by the Qing dynasty, pipa playing techniques have reached new heights and many important repertoire of the solo pipa have emerged. In addition to the pipa and the ruan xian, other plucked string instruments popular during this period of time were the sanxian [三弦] and the yueqin [月琴]. Very popular among narrative-singing genres, the sanxian could be traced back to the Yuan dynasty and its popularity continued to soar over the Ming and Qing dynasties. The yue qin was also popularised by narrative singing genres especially since the Ming and Qing dynasties. At the end of the Ming dynasty, another type of string instrument came into China. This was the yangqin [扬琴], a percussive string instrument, different from the bowed or plucked instruments that had been present. The yangqin was brought into China from Persia and the strings were struck with pieces of bamboo. The suona [唢呐] is another instrument that entered Chinese music during this period of time. Originating also from Persia, the suona came into China slightly earlier than the yangqin. Suonas could be found in Chinese music from as early as the Yuan dynasty, although it was during the Ming dynasty when it enjoyed much greater popularisation. Percussion instruments also saw new additions from the Yuan dynasty onwards. The yun luo [云锣] is an important set of percussion instruments which emerged during this time and became an important type of percussion instrument in Chinese music. Musical instruments and musical culture did not just move in a single direction from outside of China into China. Over this long period of history, many Chinese instruments and Chinese music moved out of China and influenced several musical cultures around the world.
Development of Folk Instrumental Ensemble Music: From the Western Zhou up to the Spring and Autumn and Warring States, there were already several musical instruments popularly played in folk music. During the Qin-Han period, the wind and percussion ensemble from the north-western regions came into China and soon came to be used in plenty of court music. At the same time, this form of music spread to the common folks and over a long period of time, slowly evolved into many different types of wind and percussion ensembles. Prior to the Han-Wei period, Instrumental music was used together with singing but by this time, there were beginning to be records of instrumental music that was being performed without any singing. These were known as dan qu [但曲] and were frequently performed by instruments such as the qin, zheng, sheng, and zhu. During the Sui-Tang era, pipa performance techniques rose and the pipa not only became a very important instrument used in court music, but also saw the development of many solo works. Silk and bamboo ensembles started forming by the Song dynasty and there were many different types of ensembles found in the folk music. This development continued on through to the Qing dynasty and by then there was a myraid of different types of folk instrumental music all around China. Since the Song dynasty, the development folk instrumental ensembles were also heavily influenced by regional operatic styles and performance and musical styles of these folk instrumental ensembles were closely related to singing styles of the various operas. Many tunes found in folk instrumental ensembles were also derived from the tunes found in operatic music. Musical Characteristics of Folk Instrumental Music:
Title of a work There are a few ways of naming a work and unlike modern art music, in which the title usually depicts what the composer has in mind for that piece of music, traditional folk instrumental music may not be named in this way. Pieces of music which have their melodies derived from a folk song or a certain operatic tune for example, may be titled based on the melody it was derived from, such as Hua Gu Qu [花鼓曲], Mo Li Hua [茉莉花] and so on. Some other pieces may be named by the notes which start off the piece of music, such as Chi Gong Chi [尺工尺] or Liu Wu Liu [六五六]. Others may be named based on their musical structure such as Ba Ban [八板] or Ju Ju Shuang [句句双]. Finally, there are also some pieces which are being titled according to the contents of the music, such as Ba Wang Xie Jia [霸王卸甲], Yang Chun [阳春] and so on.
Musical structure The conventional way of dividing folk instrumental music is into 2 categories, single piece [单曲] and suite [套曲]. Single pieces are usually derived from one single stock melody [曲牌] while suites are made up of several stock melodies or a linking together of several pieces of music. Several different formal structures can be found: bian zou ti [变奏体], xun huan ti [循环体], lian zhui ti [联缀体], and zong he ti [综合体]. The most commonly seen are bian zou ti and lian zhui ti.
Variation techniques of folk instrumental music Variation is a type of technique very frequently found in Chinese traditional music. The way the music is being varied takes the form of several very unique techniques characteristic of Chinese traditional music. There are a few different ways of varying a melody in Chinese traditional music. Without changing the basic melody, ornaments may be added. The beginning or the ending of the melody could also be modified thus producing something new while the basic tune is left unchanged. Performance techniques could also be varied while the melody remains unchanged. The pitch of the melody could be changed or the rhythm could be modified. Among all these, changing performance technique while the melody remains unchanged is frequently used in the wind ensembles of the north of China. Variation of the meter [板式变奏], this is characteristic of the variation techniques used in the southern silk and bamboo ensembles. Variation of the modality of the music. In solo instrumental pieces, the modality can be changed via various fingering techniques. Jie zi bian zou [借字变奏] is a very unique kind of variation technique in Chinese traditional music. In this form of variation, one of the main notes in the pentatonic scale would be replaced with a bian sheng [变声], effectively changing the modality of the piece of music, but in a very different way from the conventional modulation techniques we see in Western art music. Traditional Folk Instrumental Ensemble Music:
Silk and Bamboo Ensemble As can be seen from the name, this type of ensemble is made up of silk and bamboo instruments. Since the Han dynasty, there has already been written records of this form of ensemble used as an accompaniment to singing. During the Northern and Southern Wei-Jin dynasties, besides being used as accompaniment to singing, silk and bamboo ensembles sometimes play a short section before the entry of the vocal part. In the Sui-Tang era, qing diao [清调] and fa qu [法曲] are two types of silk and bamboo ensemble set up. Song dynasty xi yue [细乐], Yuan dynasty da qu [大曲], xiao qu [小曲], are also different incarnations of silk and bamboo ensembles. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, the development of operas and narrative singing lead to a large increase in silk and bamboo ensembles, with the accompaniment for operas and narrative singing frequently using various combinations of silk and bamboo instruments. Eventually, they developed to become not only accompaniment for the operas or narrative singing, but into a stand-alone performance entity. Jiangnan Silk and Bamboo Ensemble [江南丝竹] is a form of silk and bamboo ensemble highly popular in the Jiangnan [江南] area of China. Originating in Jiangsu [江苏], Zhejiang [浙江], and Anhui [安徽] regions, it moved to the city area of Shanghai and became highly developed there. Cantonese Music is a form of silk and bamboo ensemble music popular in the Southern parts of Guangdong [广东] and Zhu Jiang [珠江] areas. Cantonese music emerged towards the end of the Qing dynasty from accompaniment of Cantonese operas. These ensembles started off performing in the teahouses, for weddings and funerals and so on. Later on in the early 20th century, they also started performing in cinemas as a musical accompaniment for the soundless movies of that era. By the 1930s, they also became more commercialised and produced many recordings and even performed in nightclubs and other recreational facilities. Teochew Music includes various genres and is popular in the Chao [潮], Shan [汕] areas of Guangdong, the southern parts of Fujian [福建], as well as in several Southeast Asian countries. Teochew tone-poems [潮州弦诗] traces their origins to ancient tunes set to poems. Later they became popular within the common folk and became in integral part of the folk music. Teochew xi yue [细乐] is an ensemble made up of the sanxian, pipa, and guzheng and several pieces of music have been passed down with written notation. Fujian Nanyin [福建南音] is a type of ensemble music popular in the Min Nan [闽南] areas of China. There are pure instrumental music, as well as plenty of music which includes singing.
Wind and Percussion Ensemble Wind and Percussion ensembles came into China as early as the Western Han period from the northwestern regions. At the beginning, they were being used for military purposes and for court entertainment. Later on, wind and percussion ensembles moved out of the courts and manifest itself in several forms of folk wind and percussion ensembles around China. Liao Ning Gu Yue [辽宁鼓乐] is popular around Liaoning and the music is heavily influenced by operas, folk songs and other instrumental ensembles of that area. It is frequently used for weddings, funerals and other festivities. Divided into 2 types, suona music and sheng music, the former uses the suona as the lead instrument while the latter uses the guan and sheng as the main melodic instruments. Shandong Gu Chui [山东鼓吹] refers to the various wind and percussion ensembles in the Shandong area of China. In the eastern parts, the guanzi [管子] plays the role of the lead melodic instrument while in the central parts of Shandong, the dizi [笛子] is the main instrument. Finally in the southwestern parts, suona is often the main instrument in the ensemble. Jin Bei Gu Yue [晋北鼓乐] is popular in the Northern parts of Shanxi [山西]. Emerging during the Qing dynasty, this form of ensemble was absorbed into the temples and religious activities and is usually found performing for religious events and weddings and funerals. Similar to the other forms of wind and percussion ensembles, there are also two types, one using the guanzi as the main instrument and the other using the suona as the lead instrument. Ji Zhong Guan Yue [冀中管乐] is popular in Hebei [河北] and has a history of more than 200 years. It is usually used in religious rituals, as well as in festivities, funerals and weddings. Two different types of ensembles can be found, one using guanzi and haidi [海笛] and the other using suona. The types of music can be divided into religious and folk. Chao Zhou Luo Gu [潮州锣鼓] is a type of wind and percussion ensemble found in the Chaozhou [潮州] areas and they include several different performance formats. These include various forms of di tao luo gu [笛套锣鼓] and miao tang yin yue [庙堂音乐]. The development of Teochew percussion music is heavily influenced and also influenced the development of Teochew opera music. Shi Fan Luo Gu [十番锣鼓] is the name for wind and percussion ensembles popular in the Jiangnan areas. It is often used for weddings and funerals and religious activities or other important festivities. There are two types, one is a pure percussion ensemble and the other is known the sizhu luogu [丝竹锣鼓]. In addition to the main wind and percussion instruments, the si zhu luo gu also utilises some string instruments erhu, sanxian and so on.
Percussion Ensemble Qing luo gu [清锣鼓] is the term usually used for pure percussion ensembles. There are plenty of different techniques used in playing the percussion instruments in these types of ensembles and are frequently used to create a festive and lively atmosphere. One of the types of Shi Fan Luo Gu involves only percussion instruments and is commonly known as su luo gu [素锣鼓]. Chao Zhou Luo Gu also includes several types of pure percussion set up such as the da luo gu [大锣鼓], xiao luo gu [小锣鼓], su luo gu [苏锣鼓] and so on. Tu Jia Zu Da Liu Zi [土家族打溜子] is another form of percussion ensemble common among the tu jia zu. There are plenty of different percussion techniques found in this type of music making the pure percussion sound very varied and interesting. Importance of folk instrumental ensemble music and other forms of folk music: The development of Chinese traditional folk instrumental music is closely related to folk vocal music. Especially since the Song dynasty where operas and narrative singing started developing, folk instrumental ensembles also started developing on a large scale. At first, they were used to accompany operas or narrative singing, or certain folk songs and folk dances. Later on, folk instrumental ensembles started having independent pieces apart from accompaniment. Many of the music is derived from folk songs or operatic music and performance techniques also oftentimes imitate the vocal styles of the music of that region. Folk instrumental music are also an important source of inspiration for the pieces of music in Chinese orchestra and in contemporary compositions in the present. At the same time, the folk traditions are still very much alive and the music and characteristics of these various types of folk instrumental ensembles are still in a process of continual change.
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